O'ted a series of empirical studies (e. g., 1989) based on inforg theory and proposed a co of learner strategies, of which the classification of rategies is an important part. They distinguished the following:
1. Planning: Previewing the organizing concept or principle of an anticipated task (advance organization) ; proposing strategies for handling an upcoing a plan for the parts, sequence, main ideas, or language function to be used in handling a task (organizational planning).
2. Directed attention: Deciding in advance to attend in general to a learning task and to ignore irrelevant distracters; maintaining attention during task execution.
3. Selective attention: Deciding in advance to attend to specific aspects of language input or situational details that assist in performance of a task; attending to a specific aspect of language input during task execution.
4. Self-anding the conditions that help one suessfully aoasks and arranging for the presence of those conditions, controlling one's language perforo maximize use of what is already known.
5. Self-king, verifying or correcting one's cohe course of a language task.
6. Proble: Explicitly understanding the central point needing resolution in a task or identifying an aspect of the task that hinders its suessful pletion. and
7. Self-evaluation: Checking the oute of one's own language performance against an internal pleteness and auracy; checking one's language repertoire, strategy use, or ability to perform the task at hand. (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990, -139)
In O'odel, the above seven categories can be classified aording to three stages: advance organization, on-line organization, and post-organization.
Planning, directed attention, selective attention, proble and self-evaluation can be grouped into advance organization which ours prior to a learning task. Planning is e before a long-term task, such as making a semester-listening plan at the beginning of a se also be a short and brief plan for a specific learning task, such as planning for how to listen to a passage and what strategies are appropriate for the task. Directed attention in the advance organization stage involves deciding in advance where to direct one's attention in a task. It also functions as a reo ion during task execution. Selective attention is used in advance organization to reo pay attention to so aspect of language input. Proble is useful before executing a learning task, because it can make learning more problem-oriented and thus encourage learners to find ways to solve the problem. Evaluation is generally agreed to our after a language task, but it can also our in advance when learners use it to evaluate how difficult a task is going to be and what strategy is appropriate in executing the task.
The second group of rategies involving on-line organization includes those strategies employed while learning is taking place. In O'Malley & Chamot's typology they include directed attention which students use to focus on a task while they are engaged in pleting it. For exa employ directed attention during the while-listening stage to focus on the key words and ignore irrelevant ones. Selective attention is also included in this category. This is used to help students attend to the target features or details during task execution. Self-acognitive strategy used in online organization, which is applied to arrange and control one's language perforo make the best of what is already known. Self-es specifically to online organization. It is frequently ek, verify or correct one's prehension or perforpletion of a task, for example, students use self-k their understanding in the course of a listening task. Furthermore, ed to prehension. Monitoring is also employed to monitor task, strategy, production and so on.
The last group of rategies, post organization, typically involves self-evaluation, which is used to check the learning oute or perforhe for evaluation, performance evaluation, ability evaluation and strategy evaluation.
Similarly, Oxford (1990) classified rategies into three groups and they are further divided into eleven categories:
1. centering your learning: overviewing and linking with already known material, paying attention, and delaying speech production to focus on listening;
2. arranging and planning your learning: finding out about language learning, organizing, setting goals and objectives, identifying the purpose of language task, planning for language task, and seeking practice opportunities; and
3. evaluating your learning: self-monitoring and self-evaluation. ()
In parison to O'Malley & Cha of rategies is simpler in terms of the three stages. Arranging and planning one's learning involves advance-organization strategies such as finding out about language learning, organizing, setting goals and objectives, identifying the purpose of a language task, planning for a language task and seeking practice opportunities. Centering one's learning is an on-line organization stage, which involves the strategies of overviewing and linking with the already known material, paying attention and delaying speech production to focus on listening. The last group in Oxford's classification can be regarded as relevant to both on-line and post organization stages, since the two strategies—self-monitoring and self-evaluation are not only engaged in the course of task execution but also after pleting a task.
The two classifications of Oxford and O'ognitive strategies in terms of these three types of cognitive processes: advance organization, on-line organization and post organization, though they make use of different terms.
Based on previous research, Anderson (2002) has proposed five categories of itive language learning strategies, which include: preparing and planning for learning, selecting and using learning strategies, monitoring strategy use, orchestrating various strategies, and evaluating strategy use and learning.
By preparation and planning in relation to their learning goal, students think about what their goals are and how they will go about aoudents, with the help of the teacher, can set a realistic goal within a set tiplishing a goal. Setting clear, challenging, and realistic goals can help students see their own progress of language learning and hopefully, by becoiously aware of their progress, the students' motivation for language learning will increase.
The itive ability to select and use particular strategies in a given context for a specific purpose think about and ious decisions concerning the learning process. Learners should be taught not only about learning strategies but also about when and how to use them. Students should be instructed on how to choose the best and most appropriate strategy in a given language learning situation.
The next category is monitoring strategy use. By examining and monitoring their use of learning strategies, students have a better chance of suess in meeting their learning goals (Anderson, 2002). Students should be explicitly taught that once they have selected and begun to use the specific strategies, they need to check periodically whether or not those strategies are effective and being used as intended.
Knowing how to use a bination of strategies in an orchestrated fashion is an iacognitive skill. Research (e. g., Wenden, 1998; Vandergrift, 2003a) has shown that suessful language learners tend to select strategies that work well together in a highly orchestrated way, tailored to the requireask. These learners can easily explain the strategies they use and why they employ them. Based on O'Malley, Chamot & Kupper (1989) claimed certain strategies or clusters of strategies are linked to particular language skills or tasks. For example, L2 listening cos from strategies of elaboration, inferencing, selective attention, and self-monitoring.
One of the acognitive language learning strategies involves evaluating the effectiveness of strategy use. Self-questioning, debriefing discussions after strategy practice, learning logs in which students record the results of their learning strategy applications, checklists of strategies and questionnaires that can be used to allow the student to reflect through the cycle of learning. At this stage of ition the whole cycle of planning, selecting, using, monitoring and orchestration of strategies is evaluated.
Anderson's (2002) classification of itive language learning strategies can be seen to still reflect the three general aspects of ition, i. e., advance organization, on-line organization and post organization. Preparing and planning for learning can be directly grouped into advance organization which ours prior to a learning task. Selecting and using learning strategies, monitoring strategy use, and orchestrating various strategies together represent the strategies involved in on-line organization. Evaluating strategy use and learning can be regarded as both on-line and post organization stages, since it is not only engaged in the course of task execution but also ours after pleting a task. Table 3 provides a summary model relating all of the three typologies.
Table 3 A Summary Model of the Three Typologies of rategies
It should be noted that different itive language learning strategies interact with each other. The cos are not used in a linear fashion. acognitive process along with cognitive ones may be working during a learning task (Anderson, 2002). Therefore the orchestration of various strategies is a vital co of L2 learning.