first presents a definition of lines a typology of types of ition, and finally provides a definition of rategies and a classification of different itive language learning strategies.
Definition of ition
Studies suggest that language learners have definite beliefs about how to learn a second language (Wenden, 1986 & 1991; Wenden & Rubin, 1987), and that they are also capable of being aware of their mental processes (O'Malley & Chamot, 1989). These beliefs and this awareness are collectively called “itive knowledge”by Flavell (1979), who created the terition”.
The concept of “ition”was first raised in developmental psychology in the 1970s. The prefix “meta”literally ition therefore ition”. As early as 1978, John Flavell, a cognitive psychologist, defined hat takes as its object or regulates any aspect of any cognitive behavior” (Flavell, 1978, P8). He then described ition as awareness of how one learns, awareness of when one does and does not understand, knowledge of how to use available information to achieve a goal, ability to judge the cognitive demands of a particular task, knowledge of what strategies to use for what purposes, and assessment of one's progress both during and after performance (Gourgey, 1998, -84). “It was the process of using cognitive processes to improve thinking skills. And it was called ition because its core ition about cognition” (Flavell, 1985, ).
ition, as it relates to language learning, deals with learners being aware of the strategies they are using and monitoring the process and suess of their learning while using cognitive strategies to learn language. Anderson (2002, ) defines ition as “thinking about thinking”. As Anderson stated, the use of rategies ignites one's thinking and can lead to higher learning and better perforanding and controlling cognitive process he most essential skills that teachers can help L2 learners develop.
Thus, ition in this study refers to monitoring, planning and evaluating the use of cognitive strategies in an L2 learning context.
Typology of ition
In Flavell's (1979) opinion, hree cos: itive knowledge, d acognitive knowledge refers to the part of one's acquired world knowledge that has to do with cognitive itive experiences are conscious experiences that are cognitive and affective. o a set of activities that help students to control their learning. itive regulation improves perforer use of attentive resources, better use of existing strategies, and a greater awareness of prehension breakdowns. It involves the application of rategies like planning, monitoring, managing and evaluating the learning process, its products and use of strategies.
Aording to Anderson (2002), there are three itive knowledge—knowledge or beliefs about what factors or variables act and interact in what ways to affect the course and outcoivities; onscious cognitive or affective experiences that aoain to the cognitive activities; and rategies—setting goals, prehension and any problems that arise, and s for appropriate subsequent action (Rubin, 1990).
Both Flavell's and Anderson's aounts of ition distinguish three s: itive knowledge, itive experiences, and rategies. These three cos of ively, and the relationship among them is as follows:
(a) itive knowledge helps individuals to understand their experiences, which is a prerequisite for developing itive experiences;
(b) ivate the relevant itive knowledge in o participate in the current ivities and in this way have a dynaacognitive knowledge;
(c) the ever-changing store of itive knowledge will itive experiences possible;
(d) itive experiences provide the necessary information for the utilization of rategies;
(e) the utilization of rategies will inspire new itive knowledge; and
(f) the utilization of rategies enables individuals to aumulate new experiences when providing cognitive activities, which revise and replenish the stored itive knowledge.
itive Language Learning Strategies
This section first ount of the definitions of itive language learning strategies, and then describes in details the classification of different itive language learning strategies.
Definitions of itive Language Learning Strategies
itive language learning strategies have been defined by researchers in different ways. Brown (1987) defined rategies as sequential processes that one uses to control cognitive activities, and to ensure that a cognitive goal (e. g., understanding a listening paragraph) has been met. These processes help to regulate learning. They are posed of planning and ivities, as well as checking the oute of those activities.
Ellis (1994) held the view that rategies make use of knowledge about cognitive processes and constitute an attempt to regulate language learning by means of planning, monitoring, and evaluating, and thus have an executive function.
Wenden (1999) regarded rategies as general skills including planning, monitoring, and evaluating, through which learners manage, direct, regulate, and guide their learning.
Cohen (1998) described rategies as dealing with pre-assessment and pre-planning, on-line planning and evaluation, and post-evaluation of language learning activities and of language use events. Such strategies allow learners to control their own cognition by coordinating the planning, organizing, and evaluating of the learning process.
In coacognitive language learning strategies described by Oxford (1990) and O'Malley and Chamot (1990) are prehensive.
Aording to Oxford (1990, ), “‘itive' means beyond, beside, or with the cognition. Therefore, rategies are actions which go beyond purely cognitive devices, and which provide a way for learners to regulate the learning process. ”They allow learners to control their own cognition, i. e., to modulate the learning process by centering, arranging, planning, and evaluating.
O'Malley and Chamot (1990, ) believed that rategies are higher order executive skills that may include planning for, monitoring or evaluating the suess of a learning activity.
Classifications of itive Language Learning Strategies